Christmas Party 2019

I am very proud of my HND Hospitality students organising the college's Christmas Party. Fun games, music, dance, fun photos, and snacks! Even a small cinema and a Christmas movie! 

 Assessment can be fun!

How might the use of ambiguity model help leaders to understand the organisational challenges of a newly established higher education college?

Introduction

I work as a programme leader for level 4, 5 and 6 courses in a small private London higher education college. When I joined, the college was newly opened, and one of the challenges was to obtain high achievement rates and robust quality processes. At that time, there were not enough resources for students, a virtual learning environment, administrative support for course management or other resources that I was accustomed to. The office was moved weekly, as the space transformed from week to week to accommodate different needs. Policies, procedures and job descriptions were not yet written and implemented. Despite the precedent experience, I found myself into this new conjuncture where I was confused about the limits of my roles and responsibilities. In this new workplace I could not find the expected certainty given by clear procedures and hierarchy, but a fluid workspace and a divided team whose activity was influenced by part-time contracts and missing job descriptions. This is the reason why this essay investigates how the use of the ambiguity model help leaders to understand the organisational challenges of a newly established higher education college. In the beginning, the essay will explore the concept of organisational models, then will continue with an overview of formal and ambiguity models. The last part of the essay will endeavour explaining how organisational models help leaders to understand newly established higher education colleges.

 Organisational models

The organisation is understood as an association of individuals working together in a structured way for a common purpose or specific goals (Cambridge Dictionary, 2019).  The term organisation is widely used within the business environment, entailing a wide variety of legal types of businesses. In higher education, the term organisation includes, amongst other bodies and agencies, public or private universities and colleges.

A college can be characterised by a series of attributes which outline the own organisational model. The Cambridge Dictionary (2019) defines the organisational model as the representation of "the structure of an organization and the relationships between the different people, departments, or jobs within that organisation."  As suggested by Cunliffe (2008) the organisational models contribute to the understanding of how organisations function and how they can be effectively managed considering their circumstances. Bush (2011) and Bush and Coleman (2004) argue that the organisational models differentiate through the goals, structure and external environment. Considering the reality of the organisation, Bush (2011) divide the organisational models into six categories: formal, collegial, political, subjective, ambiguity and cultural. These organisational models present a comprehensible and logical view of general instances which could be applied in specific cases. The ideal models (formal and collegial) prescribe hypothetical solutions, such as Weber's theory of bureaucracy, while the descriptive models (political, subjective, ambiguity and cultural models) capture the truth of the organisation in a specific time and context. One of the main advantages of the ideal organisational models is that they create a benchmark used to investigate the reality of one organisation in a specific circumstance.

A clear fact about organisations is that everyone sees it in a different way. In my college, the owner and the senior management team tend to have a holistic view encompassing the institutional goals in the broad context of the group. The senior management team sees the college as an open system forced to adapt to external challenges and in the same time, the owner sees it as a machine meant to be productive and profitable (Cunliffe, 2008). As argued by Taylor (1911) and Fayol (1949) the mechanistic approach outlines well-defined roles, standard procedures, and a routine supervised by managers. Morgan (1998) adds to the views of Taylor and Fayol emphasizing the bureaucratic routine sustained by robust hierarchical structure and precise flow of information and power (from top to lower levels). The owner of my college communicates desired outcomes (top to lower levels communication) and offers a model of bureaucracy through some administrative procedures shared by all the colleges and universities part of the group. The metaphor of the organisation as a machine (Morgan, 1998) could help the senior management to design procedures and to build up a bureaucratic system to ease the management of the organisation.

However, the nature of education, the activities and processes conducted within the college are more complex and difficult to be contained by the principles of scientific management. Bennett (2006) argues that the necessity of adapting to national and global policies and markets makes difficult for a college to preserve a fixed and static structure. A newly established college as my workplace, due to its rapid development and continuous growth aims to achieve an organisational structure characterised by a "dynamic equilibrium" (Bennett, 2006: 48) specific for open systems. Further, the machine image of the organisation is indisputably affected by conflicts triggered by individual values and interests of senior management team members and other staff.  Moreover, the impact of individual values on organisation determined Glatter (2006) to state that more politically orientated forms of analysis and systems approaches could be more appropriate while studying the education environment.

The overall focus on profitability found on senior management level is not adopted by the college's academic staff. The lecturers focused on learning, information and culture are picturing the college more as a brain. The academics are shifting the emphasis from the whole organisation to individual leadership, resources and subcultures developed within each subject-specific department. The image of the organisation as a brain as observed by Paisey (1992) is widely influenced by the department leadership and by the classroom experience and students’ engagement.

The students' image of the college as organisation is extremely different. They may see the college as an organisation which constrains their freedom (physic and psychic) as well as a place for social fulfilment and professional development. For this purpose, they expect the college to be a highly organised institution. The image of the organisation as a prison is shared in a certain measure by staff due to elements of organisational culture and the rigour of policies. In a college, the issue of power and control can create barriers to innovation (Morgan, 1998) and may lead to staff burnout and overall inefficiency.

The formal models

According to Bush (2011), the formal organisational models comprise five approaches on the elements of the organisation: structural models, system models, bureaucratic models, rational models and the hierarchical models. These models have common characteristics related to organisational structure, goals, authority and accountability. 

A stable and robust organisational structure, with clear roles and hierarchy, is assumed to be definitory for formal organisations. Bell (1980) consider that a consistent and stable structure is assumed to be true for educational institutions. The clarity of roles is meant to positively impact the achievement of goals and efficiency. A higher education college can be organised in functional departments (recruitment, administrative, academic, etc.) and/or subject-specific departments (e.g.: The School of Media, The School of Business). In the early stage of development, the organisational structure of my college differentiates the following components: the senior management team (leading the organisation), the middle management (programme leaders), the lecturers and the support staff (administrative operations and recruitment). Other support functions (human resources, marketing, etc) were externalised.

The formal models consider the organisation a system with a clear structure and hierarchy. Due to the nature of the education and learning processes, a college can be pictured as a multi-level system (Coleman and Earley, 2005), where each level affects the other levels and the whole organisation. The image of the organisation as a system is discussed in literature by more authors (Weick, 1976; Senge, 1990; Hanna, 1997; Morgan, 1998), with emphasis on the flow of information, the inter-relation between subsystems and the role of individuals within the system. In the United Kingdom the higher education college can be described as an open system in continuous interaction with the external environment, as argued by more authors (Hanna, 1997; Scott, 1998; Bennett, 2006), because it needs to adapt systematically to regional, national and international policies, to standards and regulatory frameworks. 

The open system image described by Hanna (1997) and Senge (1990) applies well to my college. The organisation is structured on more layers, with different levels of interaction with the students. The structure reveals departments (administration, academic, senior management, recruitment) functioning as subsystems within the whole organisation. Being part of a larger group, the college can be considered a subsystem within a larger system, with access to shared functions (human resources, marketing, accountancy). In the same time, as a newly established institution, the college depends on multiple relationships with national and international partners (awarding bodies).  Aiming to meet the expectations of various stakeholders and to achieve desired development milestones, the college is aligning the internal policies and the quality cycle to relevant regulatory bodies and agencies (British Accreditation Council, Quality Assurance Agency, The Office for Students).

In higher education institutions, as well as in other schools, the hierarchy is characterised by the vertical relationships with the principal or the owner as the highest authorities emphasized by responsibilities, clear job roles, and accountability. Within an ideal formal organisation, the leader is the most rational person to be in that role, all-powerful, responsible for the organisational profit, efficiency, and development. However, here we need to consider the strengths and weaknesses of the wide and narrow span of control characteristics for flat and tall organisational structures. In a higher education college, the issue of the source of power at the top of the hierarchy may create conflicts. The source of power in my college is attached to senior management members as well as to expertise. The subject-specific specialism and the high qualifications empower members of staff who are not necessarily on managerial roles.

System thinking can be proper for most  the organisations because enhances the interaction and communication between different stakeholders. If everyone in the organisation has a system thinking mindset some gaps could be reduced and managerial solutions embraced more easily.  The system thinking mindset in a newly established higher education college can help the manager understand that the high retention and achievement rates depend on the quality of resources and academic team’s performance. Similarly, the academic team will work with the admission department to stress the entry standards and will try to deliver the programme in a way that eases high retention and achievement.  This operation will support the mechanistic approach discussed by Taylor (1911) and Fayol (1949) where the quality of the input influences the quality of output.  

The institutional goals set up by leaders are reflecting the broad vision of the organisation and are followed by all employees. Clear and specific goals will attract a higher degree of consent and will better relate to the stakeholders meant to achieve them (Bell, 1980). Working on reasonable and proper goals will lead employees to a feeling of achievement, enhancing not only the efficiency but also employee's self-esteem, confidence, and improvement of own practice. On the other side, the goal orientation may be a weakness in the situation when they refer to a single aspect of the educational process. This may lead to the distortion and corruption of the learning process, as different stakeholders will focus on achieving isolated goals regardless of the means.

The complex nature of education is reflected in the organisational level of bureaucracy as described by Weber. In colleges, the bureaucracy is enhanced by the public management and the external standards (Bush, 2011) imposed by public management and awarding bodies. Hence, the formal organisational models reflect a partial truth of educational organisations such as colleges.

The ambiguity models

The ambiguity models are describing organisations with unstable and unpredictable features. In this context, the organisational structure is determined by the external environment (Bell, 1980) and its own function. The organisational structure so well defined in the formal models became problematic in ambiguity models where the organisation seems to function on trial – error procedures and past experiences (Bush and West-Burnham, 1994). The organisational structure in a newly established college may not be as robust as expected due to the role ambiguity and a participative mode of operation dictated by part-time contracts and the early stage of team development. My college experienced within one year few essential changes within its organisational structure which affected the workload of senior and middle managers. For example, few support roles were dissolved to simplify the administrative department and the responsibilities were shared between middle managers and remaining administrative staff. Furthermore, in a short time the college experienced changes in senior management roles and more positions were added to the organisational structure.

The ambiguous authority is enhanced by the scarce participation to decision-making process. As experienced in my college the participation in committees and other decisional processes was fluid and inconsistent due to the high number of employees on fractional contracts. Moreover, in colleges and universities, the ambiguity of authority lies in the expertise of the employees at the department level (Block, 2014a). In my college, the academic department is divided between the three areas of study. Each area of study has different needs in terms of resources and has different approaches to subject delivery. Furthermore, within each area of study are modules whose requirements are so different, that they differentiate enough to create their own subsystem. The variety of characteristics on the subject level leads to fragmentation and loose coupling (Bush, 2011) on institution and department level. The subject specific specialism and mode of delivery deepen the loose coupling issue to individual basis, ideas, activities, intentions, and actions (Orton and Weick, 1990).  In this circumstance, the middle and senior management should recognise these differences and hand in the authority to the specialism staff. Block (2014b) consider that multiple differences should be acknowledged and shared between all the subject specialist, so a commonly agreed set of values to be developed and used as a benchmark in strategic planning.

In the above context, the productivity was hindered by work overload and by the role ambiguity enhanced by fluid organisational structure and missing clear job descriptions. Moreover, working in partnership with various institutions increased the external demands which at times conflicted with each other and added workload. For example, delivering the same qualification in partnership with two institutions doubled the planning and preparation due to: differences in course content, differences within the academic calendars and double preparation for external examiners.

According to Bell (1980) and Bush and Coleman (2004) unclear goals are characteristic for ambiguity models, as well as the matter of authority which is inconsistent. While the lecturers knew what to do due to the broader goals of education, middle managers and sometimes senior managers were confused by the lack of clarity regarding institutional goals. Within my college, a conflict arises between the goals of the senior management and middle managers. The senior management team was focused on increasing the profit through recruiting a high number of students. The middle managers focused on creating an effective learning environment able to foster high achievement rates, highly opposed to the rapid growth of students’ numbers in the situation of insufficient resources and administrative support.

As stated by Cohen and March (1986), the developers of ‘the garbage can model’, the ambiguity organisational models are relevant for many organisations, describing the unpredictability and complexity of college management, but they cannot be generalised for the whole organisation.

Applying models to understand newly established higher education colleges

Discussing the nature of theory in educational management from the perspective of earlier studies, Bush (1989) recognises the value and relevance of formal models for colleges, arguing that they are considered as a norm for all the organisational approaches. In contrast to formal models, referring to ambiguity theories, Bush states that “there is little empirical evidence to support their applicability to British education” (Bush, 1989: 8) although later on (2011) the same author recognises the ambiguity as a common aspect of complex organisations as colleges, with great intensity during periods of development.

Even if in the early stage the organisation is in continuous change and the participation to decision-making is arbitrary, there are several predictable features. These are dictated by the broad nature of education, by regulatory frameworks, code of conduct and awarding bodies. The existence of these formal elements overcome the lack of goal clarity at the institution level and helps the academics to successfully manage the learning and teaching process.

The above circumstances are becoming more complicated with regard to the decision-making process and the issue of power. Alvesson and Sveningsson (2003) emphasize that in knowledge-intensive organisations the ambiguity is a key dimension due to complex operations and authority relationships. This statement can be applied to higher education colleges, organisation with highly qualified professionals and ambiguous authority generated by the variety of subject-specific departments lead by subject specialists. The highly qualified employees tend to be more autonomous and to expect space, flexibility, recognition of their specialism and freedom of innovation. They have own visions about management and leadership, and this may constitute a challenge for a senior manager. Moreover, within a knowledge organisation one of the issues that may arise is the question of who the most rational person is to lead the organisation. In my workplace, I experience the situation in which the most qualified employees were in powerless positions. This circumstance challenged and eroded the leadership through the ambiguity created by individual visions on the process of leadership together with the lack of trust in the rationality of the senior management members.

As I experienced in my college, lecturers, managers and support staff can have different visions and behaviours related to organisation, based upon individual values and priorities. Idealist individuals with respect to perfection, have the tendency to search into the college the view of the ideal educational organisation (Paisey, 1992) under formal organisational models, without necessarily having the knowledge of the existent condition of the college. The new team members tend to behave independently and to show a lack of confidence influencing the overall functionality of the organisation. Moreover, as suggested by Chang, Duck, and Bordia (2006), group behaviour is influenced by the time-space complex which in the case of a newly established college is a sensitive issue. The ambiguities occurring in an early stage of institutional development could negatively affect staff behaviour and performance. Dorman (2003) argues that organisational variables such as role overload, role conflict, classroom environment , and role ambiguity are very important for teachers. As it happened in my experience, the role ambiguity negatively affected the self-esteem and trust as a professional and together with the other organisational variables lead to the onset of emotional exhaustion. I was able to come out of this state only by accepting that not all the problems can be solved, and classical solutions may not produce the desired outcome. I learned that ambiguity can be transformed into an opportunity for innovation and progress.

Regardless the efforts to regulate the activities and processes within the newly established college by the norm of formal models, it needs to be accepted that the organisation is influenced by erratic contexts and by the intricacy of human behaviour. Understanding the ambiguity and formal models help leaders of newly established higher education colleges to handle the unpredictability and to create an organized anarchy which eventually will further the development.

Often the theories are disregarded as they are thought to be secluded from the college and classroom reality, and the staff relies the most on own professional experience. Leaders operating without a basis of theoretical knowledge may find difficulties in understanding the organisation, especially when the decentralisation (generated by the differences between disciplines, the nature of operations and high autonomy of academic staff) leads to ambiguous goals and relationships. Different stakeholders' perceptions of the organisation, based on individual values, could be considered and valued as an asset (Paisey, 1992) by the leader. Understanding the newly established higher education college as a synthesis of elements help leaders to make decisions and develop a tactical solution. The theory motivates the decision making, enhances the effectiveness (Bush, 1989) and lessen the leader's frustration generated by the ambiguity and the complexity of the institutional activity. The understanding of various organisational models ease leader's adaptability to the spontaneous and more or less predictable environment and facilitates organisational performance (Miller, 2016).

References

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Bell, L.A. (1980) The School as an Organisation: A Re-Appraisal. British Journal of Sociology of Education. 1 (2), pp. 183 – 192.

Block, B.A. (2014a) Leadership: A Super Complex Phenomenon. Quest. 66, pp. 233 – 246.

Block, B.A. (2014b) Leadership and Ambiguity: When Policy, Politics, and Truth Collide. Quest. 66, pp. 323 – 337.

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Bush, T. and Coleman, M. (2004) Leadership and Strategic Management in Education. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

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Chang, A., Duck, J. and Bordia, P. (2006) Understanding the Multidimensionality of Group Development, Small Group Research. 37 (4), pp. 327 – 350.

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Coleman, M. and Earley P. (2005) Leadership and Management in Education. Cultures, Change and Context. New York: Oxford University Press.

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Dorman, J. (2003) Testing a Model for Teacher Burnout. Australian Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology. 3, pp. 35 – 47.

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Building up the Knowledge Economy Through the European Higher Education Reform in Romania (1999 – 2010)

Introduction

       The paper investigates the Higher Education reform in Romania driven by the Bologna Process and the way this reform is sustaining the development of the national knowledge economy. Romania adhered to Bologna Process in 1999, before becoming a European Union member (2007), in a period when the echoes of the communist era were not faded yet. Despite the historical model of state-centered control, and elite academic orientated system, Romania embraced the Bologna Process focused on building up higher education studies able to enhance the skills required by an economy based on knowledge. The current paper intends to explore if higher education reform is sustaining the development of the knowledge economy, looking at the perspectives of different stakeholders.  

The European Union and the Knowledge-Based Economy

       The development of the European Union led to the free movement of people, products and services within the internal market created. In order to be globally competitive and to enhance the economic growth, the European Union aimed to create strategies to develop the human capital and enhance free movement of talent from one country to another, within the Union. The White Paper on Growth, Competitiveness, and Employment (European Commission, Secretariat - General, 1993) emphasizes the importance of becoming globally competitive while addressing unemployment and developing the human capital through lifelong learning.  Later, within the Lisbon Strategy (2000), it is stated that the European Union should aim to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy on the global level by 2010 (Commission of the European Communities, 2000).

       The knowledge economy as defined within the Amsterdam Treaty (Commission of the European Communities, 1997) is that economy based on information and communication technology (ICT), supported by high knowledge skills. The knowledge economy is usually understood as an economy based on technologic development, sustained by knowledge-based industries and highly skilled workforce (Brinkley, I., Lee, N., 2007). According to the OECD (2005), the knowledge-based economy is defined as an expression of economies dependent on intellectual capabilities and on the ability to apply the knowledge within a business environment. The reliance of the knowledge economy on ideas and application of technology more than physical skills is also recognized by the World Bank (2003). Other authors (Peters et al., 2010) consider the knowledge economy as being derived from informational capitalism and cognitive capitalism, placing it strictly in a capitalism context, or they are linking it intimately to the booming ICT development (Guruz, 2011). For Guruz (2011), the knowledge economy is based on information and the workforce should be highly qualified and able to make decisions based on information analysis. He also agrees that the knowledge economy is reinforced by student mobility and higher education qualifications. On the same line, the World Bank (2003) recognizes that the knowledge economy is enhanced and sustained by lifelong learning and it emphasizes the need of developing the education and training programs that prepare the learner for a global knowledge economy. Mundy (2016) argues that the economic growth is linked to the education expansion and is driven by the skills and knowledge of graduates, outlining that a fast educational growth leads to or is simultaneous with rapid economic growth.  

       Aiming to become a competitive knowledge economy, the European Union through the Lisbon Strategy is continuing and reinforcing ideas from the Sorbonne Declaration (1998) and Bologna Declaration (1999) which underlined the imperative necessity of reforming the higher education on a European level. It is also recognized the role of lifelong learning in building up the economic growth and the need for a higher education system able to produce highly qualified employees whose qualifications and prior learning to be internationally recognized (Tomusk, 2007). Thus, following the Sorbonne Declaration (1998), in 1999 the Ministers of Education from 29 European countries signed the Bologna Declaration. This was the foundation stone for the creation of a European Area in Higher Education, based on international cooperation and academic mobility, able to sustain the development of an economy based on knowledge and innovation.

 The Bologna Process, European and Global Movement.

       In 1998 the Education Ministers of France, Germany, Italy, and United Kingdom signed the Sorbonne Declaration through which they committed to harmonizing the European Higher Education systems to facilitate the mobility of students and staff for study and research purpose, as well as the promotion of qualifications recognized by the international job market (European Higher Education Area Members, 1998).  The basis of the European Higher Education Area became better outlined in the following year (1999) when the Bologna Declaration was signed. All the ministerial meetings and agreements that followed up the Bologna Declaration are known as the Bologna Process.

       The main aims of the Bologna Process are the creation of a quality higher education space which facilitates the free movement of students and academic staff, as well as building up the human capital for an international and dynamic job market. These were to be achieved through the adoption of a higher education qualification system recognized by all the members, structured in undergraduate and postgraduate level, and a close collaboration of for an effective quality assurance system, implemented on a national level. The Process itself meant the reform of higher education, new legislative acts and the review of local educational principles to recognize a current society based on knowledge.

       Later, the Praga Communique (2001) is enhancing the objectives stated in the Bologna Declaration and emphasize on the importance of lifelong learning and the involvement of universities and students in the implementation of Bologna Process (National Education Minister, 2001).

       On the European level the importance of higher education and lifelong learning for the development of knowledge economy was clearly stated in 2001, however, it can be argued that on a national level this idea existed prior the Bologna Process. For instance, in the United Kingdom, the Dearing Report (1997), discussed by Tomlinson (2005), recognized the higher education and lifelong learning as a means to achieve economic success. The report argues that for the international competitiveness to be achieved the intellectual capital needs to develop.  It is also acknowledged the need of recognition of prior studies, reflected in the possibility of credit transfer from one institution to another.

       The Bologna Process does not only foster regional integration and economic growth but through its follow up meetings it creates new opportunities to disseminate best practice and to address problems difficult to deal with on national level (Torotcoi, 2017). The Process called for close collaboration between European countries to build up a transnational platform, but it was adopted also by non-members of European Union, such as Norway and Switzerland and Romania which was not yet a member of European Union. The Bologna Process had a wide echo worldwide, as in 2015 has 48 participating countries, from which 19 non-EU members (Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Norway, Russia, Serbia, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, Vatican City and Israel and Kosovo with observer status). The internationalization of the European higher education reforms initiated by the Bologna Process is confirmed in the Statement of the Fifth Bologna Policy Forum (2018) attended by representants of 76 countries. The Statement confirms that similar reforms were adopted by countries in South East Asia, Africa, and Latin America to enhance quality and mobility between regions. As agreed by Gita Steiner-Khamsi and Florian Waldow (2012) the Bologna Process is a clear case of global policy borrowing in education.

Bologna Process in Romania

      The implementation of the Bologna Process aimed to harmonize the higher education in the European area, but inevitably, the diversity and the multitude of systems and national curricula led to divergences in the understanding and implementation of the reforms. For example, Norway filtered the policy and adopted it to its own existent systems (Tomusk, 2007), while countries as Romania, Bulgaria, and Moldavia implemented the policy without taking much in consideration the national specific and existing structures (Appadurai, 1996). In regard to Bologna Process, Dobbins (2011) concluded that the policy borrowing in Romania was easily embraced as a result of the national political trends followed at that time by the Education Minister, Andrei Marga. The policy-making process in Romania post-communism was highly influenced by Dobbins' views (2011), by a visible orientation toward western policies, having as a model, particularly British and American practices. In this context, the Bologna Process encountered in Romania favorable grounds in terms of cross-national attraction, hence the following stages of policy-borrowing (decision-making, implementation, and internalization) being easily completed (Phillips, Ochs, 2004). In the same time, the policy borrowing could not remain independent of the power of the past (Brogger, 2014) marked by the communist ideology.

       A main challenge arises while implementing the higher education reforms were linked to the adoption of the cycles system with three years of studies for the undergraduate level which was not found as appropriate for all the programmes. In many European countries (Guruz, 2011) including Romania, a first degree achieved in three years is considered too short especially for some specialties like medicine and architecture. Moreover, it is recognized that the reform itself implicate a shift in the curricula (Brogger, 2014), from the traditional theoretical approach towards learning outcomes, applicable knowledge, skills and competence required by the new qualification framework.

       Another key element of the reform is the European Credit Transfer System which should facilitate the students’ mobility through the recognition of prior studies. The European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) credits imposed by the Bologna reforms should have moved the subject-based teaching towards a more integrated, holistic teaching, from subject areas to core areas defined by own learning outcomes. They should reflect the coursework undertaken for each module and programme, being a valuable assessment tool. This did not happen in Romania, where similar with other countries (Wutting, 2011) the current use of ECTS credits is superficial, and they are not used in the assessment, but more as a formality (Tomusk, 2007).

       Due to the Bologna Process reform, the higher-education stakeholders benefited by the new academic mobility facilitated by the Erasmus and Leonardo Da Vinci programmes. Even if Romanian students prefer western European destinations for studies, the Berlin Communique (2003) and Bucharest Communique (2012) show  Romania signing bilateral agreements in regard to students’ mobility with different EHEA states and non-EHEA states such as China, Korea, Egypt, India, Nigeria, and Turkmenistan. (UEFISCDI, 2013)

       Regarding the efforts directed towards developing a strong European knowledge economy, the Romanian Minister of Education assumed the responsibility toward students’ employability, stating that efforts are made to improve the collaboration between universities, students and employers, through developing programs that will enhance innovation, research and the entrepreneurship (ANOSR, 2012). The National Authority for Qualifications (ANC) facilitates the European harmonization of qualifications, yet according to ANOSR (2012) an important percentage of students (over 40%) are not at all aware about its existence and roles of National Authority for Qualifications and only 12% of student organizations are aware of the role of ANC and students' involvement.

Bologna Process and the Knowledge Economy. 

Academic Staff Perspective

In Romania, a country that barely left behind the communist system (in December 1989) and embraced the democratic ideals, the Higher Education system faced the need to embrace the reform (triggered by the Bologna Process) to align itself to international standards. From the traditional mission of teaching and growing characters and intellectuals, the academia had to straighten its efforts to form individuals able to contribute to the developing knowledge economy.

Ten years after adhering to Bologna Process (2009), according to the Romanian Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (ARACIS) statistics, 90% of the academic staff consider that the universities through the programs they deliver on graduate and undergraduate level help the students to acquire the competencies needed in the workplace and facilitate the access to employment when graduating (67%). Same report (ARACIS, 2009) states that 70% of the academic staff consider that the degree programs offer the skills and knowledge required by employers, precisely: the ability to synthesize information, analysis, ICT skills and the ability to argue a point of view.

The above positive perception related to the results of the reforms in relation to building up the knowledge economy is not fully shared by Geambasu, Szekely, and Tonk (2011) in their research completed in seven universities of a large Romanian academic city, Cluj-Napoca. Based on the interviews performed, Geambasu, Szekely, and Tonk conclude that the academic staff considers that the implementation of the three years undergraduate program lead to the congestion of the timetable according to which the students needing to assimilate a curriculum created for four years program. Regarding the content, it is recognized that the undergraduate curriculum is general and theoretical, while the postgraduate studies are very specialized, preparing the students for scientific careers and research. This paper does not offer information on employability and applied skills acquired by the students from lecturers’ perspective.

The academic staff perception as captured by Geambasu, Szekely, and Tonk cannot be considered relevant on the national level, as their research was drawn from a small number of universities. However, within their conclusion it can distinguish the traditional approach of higher education studies, specific to pre-Bologna period, when the higher education was mainly for elites, leading to a scientific oriented career, in contrast with the very positive report given by ARACIS.

 

Bologna Process and the Knowledge Economy. 

Students Perspective

       Two years after the Bologna Process initial deadline (2012), The National Alliance of Student Organizations in Romania (ANOSR) undertook an investigation of students’ perspective on the implementation of Bologna Process and higher education system reforms in Romania. The investigation cannot be considered representative on the national level, as the data represent the views of student representatives from 20% of Romanian universities yet is one of the very few official publications showing students’ perception on the implementation of the Bologna Process in Romania. The other publications offering statistics related to students’ perceptions on Bologna Process are the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education report (ARACIS, 2009) and the investigation of Bologna Process impacts on master degree programmes in Cluj’s universities completed by Geambasu, Szekely, and Tonk (2011).

       The data collected by ANOSR (2012) shows that the employers are involved in curriculum development in a very small proportion or not at all, as 85% from the universities represented in the study are not involving the employers. On the same topic the ARACIS study (2009) shows that 42% of respondent students answer that their university facilitated the link with employers, 39% declared that their university organized an internship program and 57% said that the university offered work placement opportunities. This data is in contrast with ANOSR results, according to which 82% of respondents are not aware of ways of employers' involvement. However, the ANOSR concludes that most of the universities do not have yet an organized system for providing the 30% work placement required by law.

       Investigating the research activities linked to relevant industries, ANOSR deduces that the private sector is not involved in industry-related innovation and research projects (with 56% of respondents sharing this opinion). In addition to this is commented that the changes made in the curriculum as a result of the Bologna reforms are superficial, based on the interest of the academic body and based on the traditional conservative attitude. Within the ANOSR study (2012) 38% of respondents consider that the economic background and current workforce requirements are not considered in curriculum development of their qualification, while the rest of respondents consider that the universities have a very low interest in aligning the curriculum to market needs or in involving the employers. About the skills acquired at the end of the qualification 76% of the respondents consider the skills somehow useful while 15% of respondents consider them totally useless. The statistic related to the same topic in the ARACIS report (2009) shows that 66% of students consider that the subjects studied underline the practical aspects while 42% consider that the program of studies is more theoretical than applied.

Moreover, considering the employability skills acquired during the studies, ANOSR investigation shows that 77% of the institutions represented in the study do not address employability and transferable skills, 85% universities do not address social competences (teamwork, leadership), and 68% of respondents do not consider that the program studied is meeting their needs of acquiring practical skills and abilities required in the workplace. The ARACIS report is presenting a slightly lower figure, showing only 50% of students considering that the program studied help them to acquire the knowledge and skills required in the workplace. 

The above results are reflected in the research undertaken in Cluj-Napoca by Geambasu, Szekely, and Tonk (2011). 69% of the students participating to this research consider that the curriculum studied do not offer skills and knowledge relevant for the workplace and the graduates are not feeling prepared for the needs and requirements of the workforce market.

Bologna Process and the Knowledge Economy. 

Employer Perspective

The employer perspective on the developments of the higher education qualification after the implementation of Bologna Process reforms are found only in the ARACIS report (2009) referring to the statistical distribution and the quality of higher education system in Romania.

The investigation on employers’ perspective underlined three factors impacting the graduates’ selection process: the reputation of the university (despite this, 40% of the employers consider that the bachelor’s degree does not assure the quality of the graduate), the work experience (is important to be specific for the job and completed in Romania) and the interview performance. Furthermore, from the employers' perspective, the graduate should be able to demonstrate the following skills: teamwork, planning, organizational skills, work ethics, communication, and ICT skills. In terms of knowledge related to job and industry, 51% of employers consider that the graduates have more theoretical knowledge that practical skills required.

As seen above the employers’ views are do not demonstrate the outcomes desired by the reform, and what it is more worrying is that 51% of employers prefer to employ alumni of 4/5 years programs and not the Bologna system ones.

Conclusions

In the light of the above, it can be concluded that in Romania the implementation of the higher education reforms triggered by Bologna Process is not necessarily sustaining the development of the knowledge economy, as desired within the Lisbon Strategy. The analysis of the sources cited in this paper lead to the conclusion that the knowledge economy development cannot be sustained by the higher education system if there are multiple perception gaps related to key issues such as the relevance of the curriculum for the related industry and the skills required for employment.

In Romania, it can be identified a clear gap between the academic staff’s perceptions and students’ perceptions of how the educational process prepares the graduate for the workforce market. The most relevant (for the national level) source cited (ARACIS, 2009) shows that around 40% more academic staff than students consider that the program of study offers the knowledge and skills required in the workplace.

Another gap distinguished is between academic staff perceptions’, students’ perceptions and employers’ perception regarding the degrees achieved. The degree is considered a guaranty of a graduate’s qualification by various stakeholders in significantly different proportions: 89% of academic staff, 69% of students and only 40% of employers (ARACIS 2009).

 Probably the most important gap identified is between the skills recognized as essential for employment by the academic staff and the essential skills required by employers. The employers are not only unsatisfied with the level of alumni’s employability skills, but the two stakeholders have completely different views about the essential skills required. The academic staff is convinced that the essential skills for employment consist of the ability to synthesize information, analysis, ICT skills and the ability to argue a point of view. In contrast, employers want alumni able to work in a team, to have planning and organizational skills, work ethics, communication, and ICT skills.

       Overall, the poor absorption of alumni on the workforce market identified by Wutting (2011) in other countries implementing Bologna reforms can be extended to Romania. Brine (2006) and Walby (2002) stated that good educational qualification is not the premise of a good job, and often we may find highly skilled workers on positions for which they are over qualified. Moreover, Brine (2006) found that only 24% of the European Union workforce was highly qualified in 2003 and concluded that the knowledge economy is developed in limited areas such as northern states and specific urban areas. The main stakeholders striving to build up a strong economy sustained by highly skilled employees shall understand that the efforts for widening participation in Higher Education must be in synergy with the market movements. The higher education curriculum which in Romania proved to be resistant to change must reflect the needs of the knowledge economy on a national and regional level, otherwise, the high-knowledge skilled learners will feel useless in a dynamic economy for which they do not feel prepared.

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